Monasticism

   Monasticism began in Egypt (q.v.) with the asceticism (q.v.) of third-century eremites, also called anchorites (qq.v.), as well as monks (from monachos, a man who has forsaken society to devote himself to God), who lived in cells (q.v.) in the desert. In the fifth century eremites like Symeon the Stylite the Elder and Daniel the Stylite (qq.v.) became famous in Syria (q.v.). John Moschos (q.v.) collected stories about many of them. In the fourth century Pachomios (q.v.) created the prototype of communal monasticism, the koinobion (q.v.), a more developed form of the lavra (q.v.). In the same century, Basil the Great (q.v.) created the Long Rules, the enduring organizing principles for Byzantine monasticism, centered around a daily routine of work and prayer. By the fifth century these two chief forms of monasticism, that of the individual ascetic, and of communal koinobion, were established. Sometimes these two forms existed together; sometimes they were practiced separately. During the period of Iconoclasm (q.v.), monks proved the greatest defenders of icons (q.v.). After Iconoclasm ended in 843, monasticism experienced a remarkable expansion, fueled by grants of land and the promotion of monks to positions in church and state. Imperial patronage included direct subsidies and exemptions from taxation (such as exkousseia [q.v.]). Some emperors (q.v.) became renowned for their support of monasticism. Nikephoros II Phokas (q.v.), for example, supported Athanasios of Athos (q.v.) in founding the Great Lavra on Mount Athos (qq.v). However, monastic estates became so extensive by the 10th century that Nikephoros II tried, unsuccessfully, to limit them. Nowhere did orders develop, as in the West. Monasticism remained administratively fragmented, as compared to the West, and individual monasteries often bore the imprint of the individuals who founded them. Thus, monastic republics like Mount Athos bore no resemblance to the greater size and more centralized administration of Cluny (founded in 910), in French Burgundy. Another difference was how much the inequality of the world was reflected inside Byzantine monasteries, with former aristocrats treated better than poorer monks. The pervasive philanthropy (q.v.) of monastic charitable institutions included hospitals, orphanages, and homes for the aged, even as places of retirement for the aristocracy (q.v.) and for failed political figures. Monasteries were also battlegrounds for important religious movements, e.g., Iconoclasm and Hesychasm (q.v.). Monks wrote hymns, and the vitae (q.v.) of saints. Much of Byzantine art and architecture, e.g., manuscript illustration, wall frescoes, and mosaics (qq.v.), were tied to monastic patronage. The golden age of monasticism was actually in the Palaiologan (q.v.) period, as the political and military fortunes of the empire declined. Today, Byzantium continues to live in numerous Byzantine monasteries that still flourish, many of them spectacular in their setting and architecture (e.g., Mount Athos and Meteora [q.v.]).